Biotin

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Biotin
Biotin is water-soluble and is required by all organisms. In human intestine, bacteria produce biotin.

Recommended daily intake: 30 µg
Biotin is present in the skin, hair, nerves and bone marrow.
Biotin deficiency rarely, if ever, occurs in healthy individuals who consume a regular diet. Almost all foods contain significant quantities of biotin, and many widely consumed foods are relatively rich in biotin. the intestinal flora synthesizes significant quantities of biotin. A significant fraction of the body’s biotin is recycled; that is, a given molecule of biotin may be repeatedly used before it is eventually lost from the body in the feces or urine.It can happen in those being treated either with certain anticonvulsants or with broad-spectrum antibiotics. Consuming raw egg white may cause biotin deficits. Avidin, a protein found in egg white, can bind biotin and prevent it being absorbed. Biotin-Avidin complex is not broken during the passage of food in the intestine and is lost in the feces.
Athletes often take biotin because they are most likely to experience a deficit. Anticonvulsants inhibit biotin absorption in the small intestine or increase urinary excretion of the vitamin. Biotin deficiency is relatively common in pregnant women, because excretion levels are higher. Pregnant women are advised to take addition biotin (at least 400 µg/ day).
Biotin deficiency causes skin, nail and hair loss. It may also result in weakness, depression, hallucination, numbness, fatigue, irritation, rashes, loss of appetite, and even depression.
Symptoms of Biotin deficiency first start with skin and hair.

  • Dry skin
  • Seborrheic dermatitis
  • Fungal infections
  • Rashes, including erythematous periorofacial macular rash
  • Fine and brittle hair
  • Hair loss or total alopecia

Approximately 1-2 weeks later, neurologic symptoms begin to develop.

  • Mild depression, Changes in mental status
  • Generalized muscular pains

Other symptoms

  • Nausea, Vomiting, Anorexia.
Biotin is found in various food stuffs in generally lower amounts than other water-soluble vitamins. Biotin containing food products include bread, brown rice, bran cereals, egg yolk, yeast, nuts, beans, peas, cauliflower, liver, kidney and fish. Biotin supplements may be recommended in case of skin, nail and hair loss.
     
     
     
 Nutrition

Phosgene

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Phosgene
Phosgene is the chemical compound with the formula COCl2. It is a colorless gas which gained importance as a chemical weapon during World War I.Phosgene was synthesized by the British chemist John Davy in 1812 by exposing a mixture of carbon monoxide and chlorine to sunlight.

In low concentrations, its odor resembles freshly cut hay or grass.
It is also an industrial reagent in synthesis of pharmaceuticals and other organic compounds. In addition to its industrial production, small amounts occur naturally from the breakdown and the combustion of organochlorine compounds, such as those used in refrigeration systems.Phosgene is produced by passing purified carbon monoxide and chlorine gas through a bed of porous activated carbon, which serves as a catalyst.

Upon ultraviolet (UV) radiation in the presence of oxygen, chloroform slowly converts into phosgene. To suppress this photodegradation, chloroform is often stored in brown-tinted glass containers.

The great majority of phosgene is used in the production of isocyanates, The isocyanates are precursors to polyurethanes.

Significant amounts are also used in the production of polycarbonates. Polycarbonates are an important class of engineering thermoplastic found, for example, in lenses in eye glasses.
Phosgene is an insidious poison as the odor may not be noticed and symptoms may be slow to appear.  Its high toxicity arises from the action of the phosgene on the proteins in the pulmonary alveoli, which are the site of gas exchange. The damage to the alveoli disrupts the blood-air barrier, causing suffocation.Sodium bicarbonate may be used to neutralise liquid spills of phosgene. Gaseous spills may be neutraised with ammonia.
Following the extensive use of phosgene gas in combat during World War I, it was stockpiled by various countries as part of their secret chemical weapons programs.Phosgene was frequently used by the Imperial Japanese Army against the Chinese during the Second Sino-Japanese War.
Chemical Weapons

Tear gas

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Tear gas
Among the first uses of chemicals as weapons, Tear inducing agents were used.During the first World War, the French army were the first to employ gas, using 26 mm grenades filled with tear gas (ethyl bromoacetate) in August 1914. The small quantities of tear gas used were not even detected by the Germans. Active agent was later changes to chloroacetone.In October 1914, German troops fired fragmentation shells filled with a chemical irritant against British positions at Neuve Chapelle.

These days a type of Tear Gas is routinely used by police to disperse rowdy crowd of demonstrators.
Chemical Weapons

Chlorine

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Chlorine
Chlorine was Discovered in 1774 by Carl Wilhelm Scheele.Chlorine gas is two and one half times as heavy asair, has an intensely disagreeable suffocating odor, and is exceedingly poisonous. In its liquid and solid form it is a powerful oxidizing, bleaching, and disinfecting agent.In nature it is only found combined with other elements chiefly sodium in the form of common salt – NaClIt is an essential microutrient for higher plants. Growth suffers if the amount of chloride in the soil fall below 2 ppm.
Chlorine is an important chemical in water purification. Chlorine is also used widely in the manufacture of many products and items directly or indirectly:

  • In paper product production, antiseptic, dyestuffs, food, insecticides, paints, petroleum products, plastics, medicines, textiles, solvents, and many other consumer products.
  • It is used to kill bacteria and other microbes from drinking water supplies.
  • Chlorine is involved in beaching wood pulp for paper making, bleach is also used industrially to remove ink from recycle paper. Paper companies use chlorine to bleach paper.
  • The largest users of chlorine are companies that make ethylene dichloride and other chlorinated solvents, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) resins, chlorofluorocarbons, and propylene oxide. 
Exposure to chlorine can occur in the workplace. People who use laundry bleach and swimming pool chemicals containing chlorine products are usually not exposed to chlorine itself. Chlorine is generally found only in industrial settings.Chlorine enters the body breathed in with contaminated air or when consumed with contaminated food or water. It does not remain in the body, due to its reactivity.Effects of chlorine on human health depend on how the amount of chlorine that is present, and the length and frequency of exposure. Effects also depend on the health of a person or condition of the environment when exposure occurs.Breathing small amounts of chlorine for short periods of time adversely affects the human respiratory system. Effects differ from coughing and chest pain, to water retention in the lungs. Chlorine irritates the skin, the eyes, and the respiratory system. These effects are not likely to occur at levels of chlorine that are normally found in the environment.

As a Chemical Weapon

The German Army first used chlorine gas cylinders in April 1915 against the French Army at Ypres. French soldiers reported seeing yellow-green clouds drifting slowly towards the Allied trenches. They also noticed its distinctive smell which was like a mixture of pineapple and pepper. At first the French officers assumed that the German infantry were advancing behind a smoke screen and orders were given to prepare for an armed attack. When the gas arrived at the Allied front-trenches soldiers began to complain about pains in the chests and a burning sensation in their throats.

Chlorine gas destroyed the respiratory organs of its victims and this led to a slow death by asphyxiation.
 Chemical Weapons

Recommended daily intake of vitamins and minerals

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Recommended daily intake of vitamins and minerals

Vitamins Recommended daily intake


Over dosage (mg or µg/d)

Biotin
(B-complex)

 30 µg  More on Biotin

Folate
(B-complex)

 400 µg Doses larger than 400 µg may cause anaemia and may mask symptoms of a vitamin B12 deficiency
Vitamin A 600 µg Extremely high doses (>9000 mg) can cause dry, scaly skin, fatigue, nausea, loss of appetite, bone and joint pains and headaches

Vitamin B1 (thiamin)

 1,4 mg No toxic effects resulting from high doses have been observed

Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)

 1,6 mg Doses higher than 200 mg may cause urine colour alteration

Vitamin B3 (niacin)

 18 mg Doses larger than 150 mg may cause problems ranging from facial flushing to liver disease

Vitamin B5 (patothenic acid)

 6 mg  More on Vitamin B5 Dose should not exceed 1200 mg; this may cause nausea and heartburn

Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)

 2 mg  More on Vitamin B6 Doses larger than 100 mg may cause numbness and tingling in hands and feet

Vitamin B12 (cobalamine)

 6 µg Doses larger than 3000 µg may cause eye conditions

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)

 75 mg  More on Vitamin C No impacts of over dose have been proven so far

Vitamin D (cholecalciferol)

 5 µg Large doses (>50 µg) obtained form food can cause eating problems and ultimately disorientation, coma and death

Vitamin E (tocopherol)

 10 mg Doses larger than 1000 mg cause blood clotting, which results in increased likelihood of haemorrhage in some individuals
Vitamin K 80 µg  More on Vitamin K Large doses of one form of vitamin K (menadione or K3) may result in liver damage or anaemia
Minerals Recommended daily intake Over dosage
Boron < 20 mg
Calcium 1000 mg Doses larger than 1500 mg may cause stomach problems for sensitive individuals
Chlorine

3400 mg
(in chloride form)
Chromium 120 µg Doses larger than 200 µg are toxic and may cause concentration problems and fainting
Copper 2 mg As little as 10 mg of copper can have a toxic effect
Fluorine 3,5 mg
Iodine 150 µg
Iron 15 mg Doses larger than 20 mg may cause stomach upset, constipation and blackened stools
Magnesium 350 mg Doses larger than 400 mg may cause stomach problems and diarrhoea
Manganese 5 mg Excess manganese may hinder iron adsorption
Molybdenum 75 µg Doses larger than 200 µg may cause kidney problems and copper deficiencies
Nickel < 1 mg Products containing nickel may cause skin rash in case of allergies
Phosphorus 1000 mg Contradiction: the FDA states that doses larger than 250 mg may cause stomach problems for sensitive individuals
Potassium 3500 mg Large doses may cause stomach upsets, intestinal problems or heart rhythm disorder
Selenium 35 µg Doses larger than 200 µg can be toxic
Sodium 2400 mg
Vanadium < 1,8 mg
Zinc 15 mg Doses larger than 25 mg may cause anaemia and copper deficiency